The definition, types, risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of oral cancer: An up-to-date literature review

Kanmodi KK; Jayasinghe YA; Jayasinghe RD; Okeke EB; Nkhata MJ; Nnyanzi LA

doi:10.61386/imj.v19i3.1211

Authors

Kanmodi KK School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
Jayasinghe YA Department of Research and Innovation, University of Technology and Entrepreneurship, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Jayasinghe RD Department of Oral Medicine and Periodontology, Faculty of Dental Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Okeke EB Centre for Digital Health Research, Innovation and Practice, Cephas Health Research Initiative Inc., Ibadan, Nigeria
Nkhata MJ School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
Nnyanzi LA School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.61386/imj.v19i3.1211

Keywords:

oral cancer, risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, review

Abstract

Background: The prevention, early detection, and effective management of oral cancer are critical priorities, requiring continual updates of current knowledge. This literature review aimed to provide an up-to-date overview of the definition, types, risk factors, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer.

Methods: The evidence synthesised in this literature review were predominantly those reports published within the past five years (2020 to 2025), and they were obtained from PubMed and Google Scholar.

Results: Inconsistencies exist in the definition of oral cancer; however, only those definitions provided by few sources, such as the World Health Organization and the UK’s Department of Health and Social Care, comprehensively defined oral cancer as cancer affecting the lips, oral cavity, and oropharynx. Oral cancer is commonly classified based on its anatomical site or cell type. Of all the numerous oral cancer risk factors ever reported in the literature, only four of them—tobacco, alcohol, betel quid (or areca nut), and human papillomavirus infection—are the established risk factors; all other risk factors are probable. Oral cancer prevention strategies are multi-level, and health education remains as the most widely recommended primary prevention strategy of the disease. The five most common clinical features of oral cancer are chronic non-healing ulcers, pathologic tooth mobility, oral lumps, pain, and oral bleeding. Diagnostic techniques such as integrated vital staining—toluidine blue and Lugol’s iodine—support early detection with 92.5% sensitivity and 63.2% specificity, while tissue biopsy remains the gold standard. Oral cancer treatment is expensive, and its primary modalities are surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, with increasing use of targeted therapies and immunotherapy for advanced stages. Evidence consistently links early detection with improved prognosis, survival, and quality of life.

Conclusion: Oral cancer remains a largely preventable disease, with early diagnosis and timely intervention significantly improving patient outcomes.